Who are we? When our ancestors left the African continent? Along the way, they met over whom, and who joined their ranks? - These questions drive the thousands of people looking for a map of human migration. (Published in "National History" 10 monthly)

Can use a cheek swab, access to oral epithelial cells, you can know what parts of the world that people have a common gene, understand their family history of evolution, for example, you are not and Queen of England, or are relatives of Genghis Khan . This is true?

In 2005, Native American 10000 Paano Yague clan tried the Michael Macqret on, he would like to know his family before the family has a documented history of the Department. Although the archaeological proposed 10000 Paano Yague family a few centuries ago their ancestors came from Siberia. But the DNA can better reveal the timing of their ancestors across the land bridge from Asia to North America, and what tribal blood. In addition to his outside, tens of thousands of people from around the world have contributed their oral epithelial cell samples.

Oral epithelial cells and human ancestors, which in the end, what kind of contact? Would like to know this story, we have to scratch Road, the first look, first appeared in the evolutionary period, the scientists have come to human interpretation.

"Come"

August 1856, two quarry workers in the German city of Dusseldorf suburb of a limestone cave to clear the rubble, the play out of a pelvis, a skull Mei Leng uplift, as well as other parts of a skeleton, the two showed these bones to their foreman of view, foreman thought it was a bear's bones, but a local teacher and amateur naturalist identified after identification, it is a different from the existing human remains. It was later named with the remains of Neanderthal man.

(Neanderthal skulls recovery plan)

Neanderthal found three years later, in 1859, Darwin published "Origin of Species," and proposed a shocking doctrine. Darwin claimed that, perhaps not by a human created by God Almighty, but by comparison made the early evolution of life, these early life may include the cave hominid. Darwin's idea to Victorian England, and even Christians now feel terrible. Worcester bishop's wife even said: "We are the descendants of apes? Hope that this is not true. If it is true, then we have to pray that things do not let people know."

But after heated debate, the scientific community, he gradually accepted the "Human beings are evolved from apes," the theory. However, the origins of mankind there is still much controversy on. Darwin in 1871 published "Human origins and sexual selection" speculated that Africa is the cradle of humanity. Another evolutionist Heigl in "Natural History of the creation of" a book advocating human origins in South Asia, but also drawing indicates the race by the South Asia Center for outward migration approach. In order to prove the origin of human beings, archaeologists have focused on the discovery apes and missing links between.

In 1890, in Java the Dutch East India Company, the work of Dr. Eugen Dubos in Central Java Trinil a river dug a skull, in the same place the following year he found a femur, the fossil skull, low-lying, frontal tilt, femur long, straight, suitable for upright walking, Dubos believe that they found the ape and the missing links between the will of this newly discovered fossil named "Homo erectus." "Java Homo erectus," the discovery of human origins in South Asia, said refreshing. 化石，中亚起源说流行起来。 However, in 1927, China discovered "Peking Man" fossils, the origin of that popular in Central Asia.

(Peking Man skull model)

However, since the 20th century, in South Africa and East Africa, there are no fewer than 20 locations found in early human fossils; Hungary, Turkey, Greece, Kenya, found the original human fossils or remains. This seems all over the world have all had human ancestors exist, it is multi-regional origin of modern humans gradually began to prevail, the doctrine that the world is independent of human origin, that is, from all over the African Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, Nepal Andert people, the East Asian Homo erectus to modern humans evolved independently in several adult species.

However, this theory has flaws, such as fossils in the same area can not prove a direct genetic relationship between, and therefore within the archaeological anthropologists have held different views.

However, the multiregional evolution is the greatest challenge presented molecular anthropology.

Dawn of genetic research

In 1944, one is called Luca Cavalli - Sforza were admitted to the University of Pavia in Italy to study medicine, and soon he gave up this profession and began the study of genetics, under the tutelage of the famous fruit fly geneticist布扎提特拉Treviso.

In order to interpret the relationship between different groups of people in 1951, Sforza began to study the blood polymorphisms, he brought several assistants, in the countryside to collect the blood. This time, scientific researchers get the help of parish priests, they are often on Sundays after Mass, in the church of St. device Mass storage room for the villagers to participate in blood. Collection of blood of this study, they found that the distribution of mountain villages in blood are very different, while the differences between villages in the valley not so great.

Since then, the Sforza Edwards and collaborators analyzed the group of 15 individuals around the world, blood type. The results showed that: Africans in the most depend on the location of the roots, Europeans and Asians, "profusion" together. The results for the first time a clear, direct, shocking reflects Africa's position in human evolutionary history, a geneticist who was later known as the "classic polymorphism."

Sforza began the relationship between human genetic research, the rapid development of genetics is the period of April 25, 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick in "Nature" magazine of the DNA double helix structure, in 1962, they are determined by X-ray double-helix structure.

(DNA double helix structure model)

At this time, to determine the genetic relationship between human beings the most suitable sample has been hand - DNA. DNA is a long string of complex molecules, it can record the evolution of people, just as each of us has a history of the body.

This is a great progress in molecular biology, but also makes a new discipline emerged: Molecular Anthropology. As the name suggests, this subject will be the introduction of molecular biology techniques the field of anthropological research, trying to study human DNA, a reservoir of genetic information to reveal the formation and evolution of humanity as a whole process.

One gene variation is the key to the study of human diversity, each one alive who are carrying about 30 brand new variations, the occurrence of these mutations are random, just like gambling, each of us is being "mutation "The" drawn "in the individual, and evolution are actually caused by a genetic mutation. To determine the link between the individual and the individual is close, or whether they belong to the same species, the important point is to understand their genes.

Meanwhile, the genes of this fast, predictable and neutral mutation frequency also has the role of molecular clock, it is like turning the clock tick time. Through the neutral mutation frequency and the two groups difference between the number of DNA mutations, we can calculate the distance from the mutation of the time, that is, the variation can be traced back to the "ancestors" survival time.

就如同大象弹钢琴一样困难。 But the 20th century, 60 years, DNA in the laboratory operate like an elephant as difficult as playing the piano. Therefore, the researchers can only use the protein, by studying the protein amino acid sequence (this sequence by the nucleotide sequence of DNA, the decision), can be a little glimpse of DNA differences.

接合在一起，以及如何在细菌体内培养接合的DNA ，这些研究使得人们可以对DNA进行精细研究，遗传工程的时代终于开始了。 In 1973, biochemist Herbert Boyer斯坦利柯恩and discovered how to cut DNA, how to splice DNA from different organisms together, and how to foster engagement in bacteria, the body's DNA, these studies makes it possible to to conduct detailed study of DNA, genetic engineering, the era has finally begun.

How to operate the DNA is resolved, molecular anthropologists are faced with another problem: Chromosome reorganization. When sperm and egg, the chromosome is always half from the father and half from the mother, which allows us to re-chromosome DNA, as has repeatedly been a "shuffling" of poker, constantly changing, the last is difficult to to find its original map. And if can not find the original map, it is difficult time for the emergence of the common ancestor of the projected.

The 20th century, 80 years, geneticists have a new idea to study the mitochondrial DNA. They are located on mitochondria within the DNA, and the general in the nucleus within the DNA have different evolutionary origins, may have originated from an early bacteria. The mitochondrial DNA, a feature: You can not restructure.

In this way, we can begin to read everyone's blood flowing on the history of our own great book, found that our ancestors who, they come from.

"Mitochondrial Eve"

In 1987, the United States "Newsweek" cover, a dark-skinned half-naked Eve to an apple Adam showed a dark-skinned, its text description: "We share a life of 15 years ago in Africa, grandmother, today All the people are that her offspring. "

This is undoubtedly an explosive news. This conclusion is that the University of California, Berkeley, Rebecca Kaka En (Rebecca Cann) and艾伦威尔逊(Allan Wilson).

This is the study of mitochondrial DNA derived from one of the most famous result of Kahn for this worldwide gathering in the placenta, because they are rich in mitochondria. They studied 147 samples of mutual relationship, draw their mitochondrial DNA lineages. Kahn's research thinking is this: If two people of the mitochondrial DNA in a polymorphic site to share a mutation, then they have a common ancestor, so that the relationship between the analysis of all samples, the molecular anthropologists can build a family tree tree, and then traced to the common mother of all ethnic groups - so-called "mitochondrial Eve." The modern gene can be traced back about 15 years ago, an African woman (in fact, Eve's survival age is a period of about 150000-18 million years).

"African origin said," has just appeared, has aroused public interest, but in anthropology have been severely criticized at home, they find some analysis of vulnerabilities, such as it was pointed out that this study used the black gene is from the Caribbean, rather than Africa, so the gene may have produced mixed.

But then geneticist analysis of mitochondrial DNA, other than when they are discovered coalescent phenomena; later genetic tests to use the African study reached the same conclusion, that the human's "Eve" is indeed in Africa.

）又提出，几乎每一个有欧洲本地血统的人都是由4.5万年前迁入欧洲的7位女性祖先繁衍而来的，这7位女性被称作“夏娃的七个女儿”。 In 1994, according to the results of mitochondrial DNA characteristic of the grouping, the British scientist Bryan Sykes (Bryan Sykes) also proposed, almost every one of local origin in Europe people are moving from 4.5 million years ago Europe's seven female ancestors reproduction from, that seven women were known as the "Seven Daughters of Eve."

Therefore, it seems to be no doubt: we all share a living in Africa about 15 years ago his grandmother. Her offspring out of Africa, with us.

This is not the first time human beings "out of Africa", in fact, scientists have long known that 150 million years ago, Homo erectus, the first "out of Africa", they are scattered all over the East arrived in the evolution of the Java man and Peking man, stay in Africa as part of the 10 to 20 years, evolve into anatomically modern man, which is subsequently out of Africa Waiting List class.

May also be coupled with more recent one: slave trade, caused by migration out of Africa's population. In the early 16th century, the first African slaves were sent to the New World, and later years, about 12 million African slaves across the Atlantic, settling in the other side. Although out of the human factor, it has also become a gene transfer chain, in their body left its mark - a lot of European, African-American body with the typical European mark - M173, is that the immigrants left behind genetic marker. This we will speak later.

"Y chromosome Adam"

Must be found through the mitochondrial "Eve", not "Adam" because all the mitochondrial DNA from the egg cell contained, so the DNA analysis could not trace maternal lineages.

Therefore, people will then ask a question: to find Eve, then Adam, where? Scientists, too, the history of the discovery of the human genome, "Eve" after, and then they try to find genes in the history of "Adam."

Eve was found between the use of is that in matrilineal transmission of mitochondrial DNA, then the study of men, you can use what? The good news is, we have Y chromosomes.

两条染色体只能在小区域内配对，而在绝大部分区域都不能和X重组，这样在细胞分裂形成染色体时，Y染色体永远避免了被洗牌的命运。 X, Y chromosomes are sex chromosomes, while men's "XY" chromosomes only in the district within two pairs, while in most regions can not be re-X, so that the formation of chromosomes during cell division, Y chromosome is always to avoid being shuffle's fate. At the same time, Y chromosome carrying the number of nucleotides is much higher than mitochondrial DNA, which the researchers have more polymorphism to distinguish between different human groups.

At that time, Y chromosome research scientists, many, including two Peter - Bide Ang hill and the Bide Ou Fenner. Underhill initial studies in marine biology at the University of California, after graduating from a period of commercial research, and later shift to molecular biology research, at Stanford University Luca Cavalli - Sforza laboratories; and Ou Fenna is a chemist, also at Stanford University by high performance liquid chromatography separation of DNA, he was very interested in Y chromosome.

As Watson and Crick co-discovered DNA's double helix structure, which is an excellent interdisciplinary cooperation in the typical. Ou Fenna possession can be a means of rapid detection of DNA variations - "high-performance liquid chromatography technology." The Underhill through the analysis of these variations, to establish a "genealogical tree" to arrive at the relationship between the crowd.

November 2000, "Nature Genetics" magazine published Bide Ang hill, Bide Ou Fenner, and other researchers 19 results. The author of over 21 lists, even in the practice of co-authored a scholarly journal, is also a rare matter, which illustrates the significance of this breakthrough work, as well as much as it focused on the research results.

The study on the global 1062 representative for the male Y chromosome studies, analysis results show that Europe and Asia, modern populations have their origins in Africa, the Americas and Australia are both modern populations originated in Southeast Asia populations. This is the "Eve hypothesis" mutual should permit "Adam hypothesis," says Adam, live in the 50009 millennium ago.

染色体的年代距今有5万9千年，这近10万年的时间差距该如何解释呢？ However, according to mitochondrial DNA, the earliest modern gene appeared in 15 million years ago the body of the African Eve, while Adam Y chromosome there are 50009 years ago the Millennium, this time for nearly 10 years the gap in the explanation for that? In fact, the late Adam appeared time in years between 40000-14. But also in the gene sequence in the table, mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosomes are independent, so they are not met at the same time does not make sense - from a genetic point of view, "Adam" and "Eve," do not have to meet, as long as they genes were passed down enough.

Adam and Eve have owned, but, for ordinary people is concerned, they are also concerned with Eve and Adam's children and grandchildren is to spread to five continents. This immediately find out.

Find Gene Map

In 2005, a huge multi-country cooperation program start: "finding a human footprint program." 个研究机构参与了研究。 The program by the National Geographic Society, IBM and the Waitt Family Foundation co-funded 40 million U.S. dollars, the world's 10 research institutes involved in the study. Objective of the project is that, in 2010, worldwide collection of 100 thousand persons DNA, thus depicting map of human migration.

10 Distribution of participating research institutions around the world - China, Russia, India, the United States, Britain, France, Lebanon, Australia, Brazil, South Africa, their data were collected in this region, and focus on reporting to the project headquarters, by an IBM Company science team used advanced data classification techniques to reveal the sample contains a new model and contacts.

If you find a map of human migration, we can get a lot of interesting things, such as when groups of people to leave the African continent; Along the way, they met over whom, and who joined their ranks; we can see that even Alexander the Great to enter the the Asian continent, Genghis Khan's army westward in Central Asia, the Crusades well-known historical events such genetic "traces."

This is not wishful thinking. 2008 Pierre Zhaluo Wa Lebanese American University, published a study has found that Lebanese DNA is usually found among people in Western Europe a higher frequency of gene segment: R1b, but only in the gene segment Lebanon's Christians in the high frequency appear in the Muslim genes were visible. The same time, the scientists involved in the study of Spencer Wells, but also in overall charge of the Genographic project explained, said: "The most likely answer is that this is the result of the Crusades."

The Study Group found that the exact location of human origin in East Africa, which is the area of today's Kenya and Tanzania. At present, the oldest race on earth, one is living in the south-west Africa, the African indigenous Bushmen, also known as the San tribe - that is, the movie "The Gods Must Be Crazy" and described people, they are looks are not as common Africans: tall short, with thick curly hair, lighter skin, eyes and thick. Perhaps through them, people can distant saw the backs of our ancestors. Does this mean that humans originated in southern Africa, rather than the East African Great Rift Valley? Some anthropologists made the ancient origins of the South said, but it is not a sufficient conclusions, San tribe has a very broad distribution, in Somalia, Ethiopia and the San people have found fossils of similar characteristics.

(Bushmen)

African emigration of about 10 years ago, perhaps the result of climate change. 15 million years ago, the Earth is the end of the ice age, Rees period of earth's average temperature lower than it is now 10 ℃, about 13 years ago, the climate began warming, because of sea-level rise and increase in atmospheric moisture, Africa increased precipitation, 12 million years ago, the earth began a gradual cooling, rapid cooling to 7 million years ago. U.S. geophysicist Robert Walter published a study showing that the African continent occurred in the last glacial period large-scale drought, have enabled people to move to the coast.

Out of Africa in mind

If a few years ago the human compared to travelers, and their migration process, as cross-linked with each other in a series of lines moving, but very slowly. In a particular route, local people have a common genetic marker, so scientists have to use letters and numbers for these lines numbers.

，在女性远祖的基因谱系上也找到了线粒体L3 ，就是他们的后代走出了非洲。 Probably more than 10 years ago, the Africans began to migrate outward, the first discovered outside of Africa, is living in the 10 years ago, the male ancestor gene, scientists have played a month to give it the name of the digitization of M168, in the female ancestor genetic lineage also found mitochondrial L3, is their offspring out of Africa.

，同时还有一个线粒体M，M130和线粒体M相伴随踏上了旅途。 About 9 million years, when, M168 on the separation of a new logo, called M130, along with a mitochondrial M, M130 and mitochondria embarked on a journey accompanied by M-phase. They are most likely route is along the coast forward, because the beach easy to find high-protein food, in the eastern Horn of Africa, Eritrea, we have discovered thousands of years ago 120,005 clam and oyster shells, fossils, stone tools mixed with human This shows that human beings living marine resources here, Zeng Yi.

Sea level was much lower than it is now, Australia and Irian, and Melanesian a number of islands linked together. They are in the coastal fishing in the process learned how to use the raft, the raft to help them the peninsula from Africa to Indonesia, to Australia and New Guinea and other places, they move forward from generation to generation, perhaps in search of food, water or manufacture of stone tools . This left the crowd, forming a brown race we later call their time in Australia could be six years, to spread in the East Asian mainland is more than 40,000 years ago, known as early as Asians.

Brown kinds of people to the Americas have not yet genetic evidence, even though North and South America have found that M130 marker, but due to lack of time estimates can not be left to determine is a brown race, or later immigrants bring. However, many remains of ancient human remains and archaeological discoveries have proved that Brown kinds of people have arrived in the Americas, such as the Inter-American civilization, the ancient stone carving of omec head, it may be brown races left. If they arrived in the Americas, should be the use of rafts, because it was a snow-covered Bering land bridge, human impassable.

These brown ethnic cultures are relatively low, there is no hunting technology ensures superb harvest per hunting there, so they do not waste any food sources, from the Andaman to Irian, brown always has a tradition of eating human corpses, perhaps an outsider sounds thrilling, right palm kinds of people, it is handed down from ancient times, the criteria necessary for tribal survival.

Approximately the M130 at the same time, there has been a marked M89, shows that humans, through North Africa into the Eurasian continent by land. Soon M89 on the separation of the M9, which were the ancestors of all Europe and Asia. 和M175 ， M20主要在印度， M45向东迁徙时遇到了天山的障碍，无法进入中国的西北地区，成为中亚人和部分印度人的祖先。 M9 descendants moved eastward in the late Palaeolithic period when variation, differentiation out the M20, M45 and M175, M20, mainly in India, M45 east Tianshan migration encountered obstacles, lack of access to China's northwest region, a Central Asia and some Indian ancestors.

The M45 descendants of M242, about 3-4 million years in Central Asia or southern Siberia and migrated into the Americas, they carry the genetic marker is the M3. 千年前，爱斯基摩人和阿留申人从白令海峡到美洲，是第三批。 Be divided into at least three batches of these immigrants, arrived in the Americas at different times: the first batch of 3 million years ago, came from Central Asia, some people walked the Bering land bridge, arriving after the American south, as most of southern South America and North America Indians; the second in two years ago, from south to north through northeast China to the Bering land bridge, occupied the northern part of North America; while about three years ago, Eskimos and Aleuts from the Bering Strait to the Americas, is the first three batches.

万年前到达东南亚地区，只用了棕色人1/5的时间，在两万年前的玉木冰河盛期，黄种人进入中国，由南往北分布，整个扩张开来。 M175 continue along the southern foot of the Himalayas eastward, northward migration, bypassing the Indo-China, they are the second wave from the East African Asians arrived in East Asia: Late Asians, that is, the yellow race, and their diffusion rate is very quickly, from West Asia into the Indian River, north through the South Asian subcontinent, about three, four years ago arrived in Southeast Asia, only the brown people 1 / 5 of the time, two years ago, glaciers Tamaki hatching, the yellow race person to enter China, and from south to north distribution, open to the entire expansion.

Since Brown arrived in the earlier race, the first race to reach the yellow and brown races still can not afford to fight, and later yellow and brown races gradually turf battles, due to the yellow race first entered the Neolithic Age, both in technology and physical advantage, they gradually was able to carry out massacres and expulsion of ethnic brown.

Although this event has been very long ago, we have recovered from the archaeological or historical records found in traces, and the DNA analysis results coincide - the human bones in the Shang Dynasty materials, we can find brown ethnic composition, the Yin Ruins of the sacrificial pit captured a large number of alien skulls, a large part of which may be brown race; the same time, the local historical records, the Qing Dynasty in Guangdong elite government officials have raised the family as "Little black"; in Taiwan, the earliest arrival of Austronesian indigenous peoples have become extinct, "dwarf black "legend. These legends or historical data, are historical memory of this incident. Yellow-brown kinds of people who are now killing and expulsion of leading East Asian populations, brown markings M130 is very rare, but now there are still a small amount of brown kinds of people can prove they have the history - such as the Philippines, Central Luzon, MA to the northern peninsula, the mountains, the Andaman Islands, a small black people in Asia, Indian peninsula Dravidians.

End

Compared to archeology, molecular anthropology has been great progress. Paleoanthropology homely in a very difficult or embarrassing situations - although before the advent of agriculture, there were billions of people living before, but scattered bones and tools in various places, but pitifully small, they can rely on only occasionally to find a basis for the bones and fossils. The molecular anthropologists do not need to wait for fossil was found, the evidence on their side.

However, molecular anthropology has its limitations, scientists have detected the human DNA is not never enough, they are good at long study of the matter, but on closer analysis of the genes, there are some errors. At present scientists can only be traced back to several dozens of generations before, and then down into the genealogy is still in chaos, unable to answer more of historical issues. At the same time, human migration process, there are still many details of the failure to clear, including the relocation of the speed and the number of times out of Africa.

Therefore, in addition from more places, collecting more DNA. Scientists have started looking to the human attendant creatures: bacteria, fleas and even lice, they want to benefit from these genes, we found traces of human migration.

Over the last decade, scientists have analyzed a large number of DNA, the human out of "African mind" already has most of the details, but a review of the history of human migration, only a start. We know how our ancestors came to East Asia, into China, the following is about to begin another journey - into the Chinese mind.

PS: some time ago because the magazine needs, bite the bullet to write, and please Paizhuan bar!

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